Cream Seperation

Separation of cream from full cream milk using the Disc- Bowl Centrifuge. Introduction:- Cream is usually a dairy product containing high fat percent, which can be seen floating on the top before the homogenization process. When the milk is unhomogenized, overtime, the fat lighter in weight rises to the top. The process in the industries is completely different as they use centrifuges, normally called as separators to accelerate the creaming process. Cost of cream totally depends upon its fat content.Cream usually produced by the livestock grazing process on natural pastures normally contains some amount of natural carotenoid pigments acquired from plant materials they consume; as a result of which the cream appears a bit yellowish in colour. Cream derived from the milk of livestock fed indoors is usually white in colour as they normally are grain based pellets. There is a formula for determining the rate of sedimentation, widely known as Stokes’ law. It states that a particle moving through viscous liquid attains a constant velocity or sedimentation rate. Equation for Stokes’ law Vg = d2 (Pp- P1)/ 18  µ ?G Where:- Vg = Sedimentation Velocity d2 = particle Diameter Pp = Particle density P1 = Liquid density G = gravitational acceleration  µ = viscosity of liquid Aims:- 1. To separate cream from full cream milk at two speed settings of the disc bowl centrifuge. 2. To evaluate sensory properties of the cream and skimmed milk. 3. To determine the throughput of the centrifuge. Materials and Equipments:- Disc-bowl centrifuge 1 Litre and 400 ml beakers Litre measuring cylinder Sample cups –transparent 2 Litres full cream milk Large Plastic bowls Pans Stopwatch Digital Thermometer Method:- 1.Two batches of 1 litre of full cream milk was warmed at 37 degree C. 2. 1 litre beaker was placed beneath the lower, heavy phase, spout of the centrifuge. This usually was the point from where the skim milk exits. Right after then the 400 ml beaker was plac ed beneath the upper, light phase, spout of the centrifuge which usually was the exit point for the cream. 3. Before carrying out the next step, it was ensured that the tap of the milk receiving reservoir at the top of the centrifuge was in a closed position ie. Pointing N to S 4. Warmed milk weighing 1 litre was then inserted into the reservoir. . The motor was switched on as soon as milk was inserted and was set on the lowest speed setting by adjusting the speed setting knob. 6. As the motor speed was steady, the tap of the reservoir containing milk was then released and the stopwatch was started. 7. Portions at light and heavy liquid phases were then collected from the relevant spouts, cream and skimmed milk respectively. 8. The stopwatch was switched off as soon as the milk reservoir was empty and the time taken was noted. 9. The motor of the centrifuge was allowed to run till the flow of skimmed milk and cream was ceased. 10.The portions of skimmed milk and cream received throu gh their relative phases were then measured and then the yield was calculated. 11. The throughput of the material was then determined in litres per hour at its respective speed setting. 12. The stages 2 to 12 were repeated using second batch of warmed milk, with the only difference being the time setting. The whole process was carried out by operating the motor on the highest speed setting. 13. The above process was followed by placing the large bowl underneath the spouts and by flushing the centrifuge using cold water just to clear the washings in the centrifuge. 4. Right after the process the whole equipment was dismantled including the reservoirs spouts, collecting funnel etc. The parts were then washed using hot water with a little detergent. 15. The cream and skimmed milk from each speed setting (i. e. High speed setting and low speed setting) were then subjected to sensory properties evaluation. * * * * Result:- * * The following were the results obtained :- 1. The results for 0. 1 % skimmed milk at low speed setting were * Fat:- 00. 07% * * And the results for same product at high speed setting were * Fat:-00. 03% * 2.The results for 2 % semi skimmed milk at low speed setting were * Fat:- 1. 60 % * * The results for 2 % semi skimmed milk at high speed setting were * Fat:- 1. 64% * 3. The results for 4% Whole milk at low speed setting were * Fat:- 6. 56% * * The results for 4% Whole milk at High speed setting were * Fat:- 7. 25% * * * Discussion:- * 1. Principles of the operation of Disc-bowl Centrifuge. * Brennan (2006) states that the Disc bowl centrifuge works on the principle of particle density. Feed is introduced through the bottom of the bowl.As it comes with the contact of the centrifugal force, the dense phase moves downside while the lighter phase passes through the top spout. * 2. Different Categories of cream available to the consumer and their legal minimum fat contents? * Sheila (2006) mentioned in an article that categories of cream availa ble are * Single cream – 18 % minimum fat content * Double cream – 48% minimum fat content * Half cream – 12% minimum fat content * Whipping Cream – 35% minimum fat content * Creme fraiche – 30% minimum fat content * Soured cream – 18% minimum fat content * Clotted cream – 55% minimum fat content. 3. Categories of cream produced in the Practical? * Type of cream produced in the practical was single cream * 4. Purpose of Cream screw? * The thickness of the cream can be adjusted by the help of the cream screw. Cream screw helps to trap the cream and helps the cream to let out. * * 5. Why is the milk heated first? * De (1991) explained that, higher the temperature and degree during agitation the greater is the loss of skimmed milk and vice versa. When the milk is heated and agitated, the agitation process causes size reduction of bigger fat globules into smaller ones.As a result of which they escape the effect of centrifugal force, leadi ng to exclusion of fat loss in the skimmed milk. To reduce creaming. * * Conclusion:- * Cream was successfully separated from the milk using Disc bowl centrifuge. The cream was further tested for its sensory properties, and the sensory properties of the cream were found to be appealing. * * * * References:- * * J. G. Brennan (2006). â€Å"Food Processing Handbook†. Wiley-Vch. * * Sheila (2006). â€Å"Cream Final Edition†. The Times, London, UK. * * Sukumar De (1991). â€Å"Outlines of Dairy Technology†. Oxford University Press.

The inadequacy of motivation Essay

Sixth, there are some individuals who are more successful than others because of their sicknesses and the discrimination that goes along with it. For example, there may be students who suffer from HIV/AIDS and they tend to drop out of school because of discrimination (Cape.. , 2006). Other students may feel and believe that they might catch the same virus if somebody carries it around the school, this consequently scares these students and will surely discriminate the student suffering from HIV/AIDS (Cape.., 2006). Of course the latter will feel alone and discriminated and will force himself or herself to just forget about his or her dreams and drop out of school instead (Cape.. , 2006). Comparing to students who do not carry any medical condition, they are more successful in college than those who are sick. Seventh is labeled as â€Å"the inadequacy of balance between analytical, creative, as well as, critical thinking† (Smith, 1923). A college student should learn the skills of thinking analytically, creatively and critically to be able to survive through the courses needed to be accomplished to finish college, for without the aforementioned skills, it would be fairly difficult to pass college courses, much less finish a degree (Smith, 1923). For some students who are not analytical, creative and critical thinkers, they are less successful as compared with those who are. Last but not least has something to do with the culture of the learner’s environment: The first one that belongs to this category is technically referred to as â€Å"the inadequacy of motivation† (Smith, 1923). The trick here is to know the reason for studying. The student should know what his or her goals and objectives are, otherwise, when difficulties emerge, the student will have no motivation or reason to move on (Smith, 1923). The second is known as â€Å"the attitude of giving up easily† (Smith, 1923). Everybody knows that it takes dedication, time, effort, patience, and a lot of mental energy to digest a new learning that if a student is bound to easily give up and get bored over repetition of things then most likely he will end up leaving college without graduating (Smith, 1923). Some students in college are more successful depending on their motivation and attitude. References Cape Gateway. (2006). Social Issues Affecting School. Retrieved November 13, 2007 from http://www.focusas.com/BehavioralDisorders.html

How Technology Has Changed Our Lives.

{draw:rect} MODERN AGE (1950-1985) After the Second World War Americans began to prosper, millions of people were changing. The troops that were returning from war some 12 million served during the war years were going back in the workforce. Most of these men were mere children when they signed on, some from rural America that never returned to work the earth. Farming technology was being made to counter act this problem. So much so that at the turn of the twentieth century 50 percent of the workforce was on farms that provided the nation’s food. By the end of the 1950’s only 7 percent of the workforce was working the nation’s farms. Hourly wages for selected industries, United States, 1950 1901 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. $ 0. 23 1918 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. .53 1935 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. .58 1950 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1. 59 SOURCE: U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Expenditure Survey Manufacturing. (Bureau of Labor Statistics) Yale Brozen writes â€Å"Fear of automation can be traced to four sources. † One is based on the assumption that there is a fixed amount of goods. The second source of fear springs from the idea that automation or cybernation is something more than the latest stage in the long evolution of technology. The third source of fear lies in the fact that we are much more aware of the people displaced by automation and concerned about them than we are of the other unemployed. Even while we reduce the amount of manpower needed to do a fixed amount of work does that fixed amount of work remain the same? As we all know this is not the case. As we free up manpower from one aspect we find new and productive uses for that manpower. His words speak the truth then as they do today. It saves lives through the aid it gives doctors. By controlling traffic signals in response to traffic flows and reducing traffic congestion, it adds hours to the free time of commuters every week. It helps scientists, with the aid of high speed data processing; to develop new knowledge that otherwise would not be available in our lifetimes. We are increasing the sc ale of educational activities because mechanization, automation, cybernation, or whatever we choose to call our new technology, makes it possible to do more than we could formerly. With the coming of automation, men are able to do more and have more. Both sublime and mundane activities are being enlarged and the number of jobs has grown as a consequence, not declined. † (Brozen) The second source of fear that the latest idea of automation or technology will become something more then what it was intended to be. People were so obsessed with what the future would hold books and movies were made to cast this fear. Science fiction was used to depict future events that could occur. Films such as one that was released in 1968 2001: A Space Odyssey where an artificially intelligent supercomputer, HAL takes over a space mission. Today some super computers are in use, are they anyway near being HAL? Some say we are getting close to true artificial intelligence, but we are far from HAL. The forth source of fear of automation is that it reduces the demand for unskilled workers. This may be true in some instances but at the same time the demand for skilled workers will increase. As stated previously companies do their best to keep their employees. When possible they are retraining these employees to fill new jobs that become available because of the new technology. If this were true then the unemployment rate would raise proportionately. If automation is added to a process and did the work of five people then five people would be unemployed. We know that this does not make sense. It has increased productivity to the process not that it reduced people from the process. NEW WAVE (1985-Present) The year 1985 saw more technological changes, Windows 1. 0 is introduced here you can do more than just one DOS application at a time. Made by this little upstart IBM partner company called Microsoft, it even comes with a calculator program. Some other wonders of 1985 is the first compact disk read only memory (CD-ROM) of none other than a Grolier Encyclopedia. Apple was the big name in computers at the time and most businesses had one. To be up to date in the office the new Apple LaserWriter printer was the best and it only cost around $7000. The main reason we call 1985 the New Wave era is this, the first . Com domain name, symbolics. com, is registered by the Symbolics Corporation. (The People History) According to David Huether, chief economist of the National Association of Manufacturers, U. S. manufacturers are producing and exporting more goods than ever before. While manufacturing output easily outpaces the larger U. S. economy, manufacturing employment, at 14. million, is at its lowest level in more than 50 years. (Williams) Another place that has felt the effects of technology is in the office, or white collar jobs. Michael J. Handel writes in a brief for SRI International: â€Å"Analyses of national data indicate that increased use of computers in the 1980s and 1990s was associated with greater use of more-educated workers withi n industries. However, the direction of causality is unclear. It may be that both educational upgrading and greater computer use simply reflect an independent increase in the number of white collar workers within industries, who are the most frequent computer users. It may be that the hiring of more-educated workers, usually office workers, stimulates demand for computers rather than vice versa. In addition, the industries upgrading their educational levels coincident with adoption of computers in the 1980s and 1990s also appear to have been upgrading educational levels before the widespread diffusion of computers. † (Handel) There are many ways to make a job better, faster, and safer. Every dayI see improvements to the work floor. There are many facets of the business that help with these improvements. Some of which are our Product Development Teams (PDT) that will follow the work to see if anything can be changed. They work closely with our Research and Development (RD) operations. These two areas have grown by 1000% in the last twenty years. Another area that has greatly grown is our engineering staff and related personal. In 1996 the skilled trades had two engineers to take all our requests to. We now have engineers for facilities, electricians, repairmen, mobile equipment, power house, and toolmakers. In all we have become more effective and more efficient in how we do our business of repairing the machinery in the factory. Everyone can be affected by technology no job is completely that same as it was in years past. Studies have been made to classify a job for automation. They are based on three dimensions, Receptiveness Stability Structuredness Some jobs are changing constantly, I have seen toll booth operations change here in Illinois just over the last two years. The new faster E-Z pass lanes going into Chicago for one. I asked one of the booth operators how they liked them, one told me that it was all good. Their day is less stressful and they have hired more people in the toll way system. More people to monitor and maintain the equipment and make sure those that did not pay get those little notices in the mail. WORKS CITED Baughman, James L. â€Å"Television Comes to America, 1947-57. † Editorial. Illinois Periodicals Online (IPO) Project. N. p. , Mar. 1993. Web. 29 Nov. 2009. http://www. lib. niu. edu/1993/ ihy930341. html. Bland Jr. , Gordon R. â€Å"The Effects of Job Automation on the Economy. † Scribd. N. p. , 4 Mar. 2009. Web. 29 Nov. 2009. http://www. scribd. com/doc/12965589/The-Effects-of-Job-Automation-on-the-Economy. Bureau of Labor Statistics. â€Å"100 Years of U. S. Consumer Spending: Data for the Nation, New York City, and Boston. † United States Department of Labor. N. p. , 3 Aug. 2006. Web. 29 Nov. 2009. http://www. bls. gov/opub/uscs/1950. pdf. Brozen, Yale. â€Å"Automation: The Retreating Catastrophe. † Ludwig von Mises Institute. N. p. , n. d. http://mises. org/journals/lar/pdfs/2_3/2_3_5. pdf. Rpt. in Automation: The Retreating Catastrophe. N. p. : n. p. , n. d. N. pag. Ludwig von Mises Institute. Web. 29 Nov. 2009. http://mises. org/. Handel, Michael J. SRI Project Number P10168. SRI International, July 2003. Web. 29 Nov. 2009. http://www. sri. om/policy/csted/reports/sandt/it/Handel_IT_Employment_InfoBrief. pdf>. Huether, David. â€Å"The Case of The Missing Jobs. † BusinessWeek. N. p. , 3 Apr. 2006. http://www. businessweek. com/magazine/content/06_14/b3978116. htm. Rpt. Web. 29 Nov. 2009. http://www. businessweek. com/magazine/content/06_14/b3978116. htm. The People History . † 1985. N. p. , 2009. Web. 29 No v. 2009. http://www. thepeoplehistory. com/ 1985. html. U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Reducing Launch Operations Costs: New Technologies and Practices, OTA-TM-ISC-28 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, September 1988).

UK Political System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

UK Political System - Essay Example Fifth, there is a two-party system which keeps the party in power continually on its guard lest the Opposition should make political capital out of just one of its tumbles on policy; sixth and last, there is a culture of democracy that preceded formal establishment of democratic institutions. Parenthetically, checks and balances are a lot more than mere separation of powers: the essence of the latter is autonomy for every branch, which can only ensure that one branch of the government does not poach on the particular preserves of endeavour of any other. But checks and balances ensure that no branch of the Constitution lets another overreach its powers. For example, parliament makes laws and the judiciary interprets them in the light of the Constitution, even though in the case of Duport Steel versus Sirs in 1980 the judges said "it is parliament's opinion on these matters that is paramount". Interestingly, under the British Constitution judges cannot be removed from office except by impeachment which has been very rare. Also, the executive is discouraged from criticising judicial decision. The US President is often called the world's most powerful functionary. However, the federal structure of the USA curbs his powers. That, at least in theory, is not the case with the British Prime Minister. The powers of Congress and the Supreme Court balance those that a President might exercise; the US Constitution lays down what the President can and cannot do, and the codified document can be changed only by the Supreme Court. Such constraints do not obtain in the UK; the general powers exercised by a British Prime Minister include that to appoint, reshuffle or dismiss Cabinet ministers, create peers in the House of Lords, give out honours, appoint ambassadors, top civil servants, bishops and judges, determine government business and Cabinet discussions and agendas, withhold information from parliament deemed necessary, use the media via a lobby system, terminate the life of a government and call a general election. Thus, the British Prime Minister would appear to have abundant powers. . The Prime Minister's position as leader of the majority party in the House of Commons, together with his position as head of government, thus combining legislative and executive powers, apparently amount to immense accretion of power. Additionally, many of the Prime Minister's powers derive from the prerogative powers of the Monarch. These extensive powers are wielded independently of parliament, and effectively give every Prime Minister the powers of a head of State, which include being in charge of the armed forces and security services, negotiating treaties. All this suggests that the Prime Minister can act like a virtual autocrat. Constraints However, this is not so, as there are constraints on his/her powers. For instance, he/she cannot afford to be seen to surround himself/herself with "nodding donkeys", as a political commentator put it. The party he/she leads will not

General Systems Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

General Systems Theory - Essay Example According to Dwivedi and Wade, a process is essentially a set of behaviors that incorporates a system and whose aim is to achieve a goal. A system consists of elements which have many and relevant properties. These elements are not part of the system, but in case they are removed or changed then the state of the system will be changed or altered. This paper focuses uniquely on emergence and connectivity system theory concepts as they applied in the information systems. The benefits of information systems include personnel and inventory reduction. Tangible benefits include improved processes, visibility and standardization. The benefits can also be classified as strategic, financial, tactical and operational. Organizational systems provide the environment for the information systems (Stair & Reynolds 2011). According to Stair & Reynolds, the information systems are different from the organizations in which they are embedded. Information systems are purposive systems. Organizations are systems which are purposeful (Hua & Bapna 2009). Hua & Bapna urge that, in case of a purposive system, there are multiple goals, which are different but they are under a common property. Information systems offer considerable help in packaging and processing organizational systems. ... In this case, the observer can be a manager, customer, etc. we must view an information system as an element of a bigger system. Information systems play an extremely prominent role in the running of an organization (Knight & Halkett 2010). An organization is a system which consists of subsystems which are distinct but correspond to each other. While considering information systems it is crucial to take note of how the general systems theory promotes the purpose and understanding of information systems, (Stair & Reynolds 2011). Considering the above definition, information systems can be conceptualized and thought of as control systems. They can also be viewed as subsystems that give common meaning or purpose to a system which is part of a bigger system (Knight & Halkett 2010). This definition carries more value and representation than the other definitions. It also shows the modern role of information systems. General system theory and information systems General systems theory (GST ) can be applied to information systems (IS). General systems theory consists of four concepts that help to define any system. These are emergence, control, hierarchy and communication. Emergence refers to the process by which new structures and properties are derived in complex systems. This happens when elements of a system interact over a period of time. Hierarchy refers to a collection of stages or levels which are arranged according to the level of detail or complexity. This is demonstrated through systems and subsystems. When information is being processed in organization systems, it is planned, processed and displayed according to these hierarchies. This saves time for the organization. The communication is the process by which

5 positive and 5 negative ways companies who have faced harassment Article

5 positive and 5 negative ways companies who have faced harassment cases have handled them - Article Example Besides the products, the focus has also been on the growth of these companies. The competition between Apple and Samsung has been elevated with each of them keen to its philosophy. Apple Inc philosophy is to design quality products to the market while Samsung is to remain competitively active. Samsung have lost a lot of money that have been awarded to Apple Inc. Apple has also lost a lot of money that was awarded to Apple for violating the company’s patent. Apple succeeded only on two patents. The reputations of the two companies have been dented with constant court scrabbles. Apple won in their litigation against Samsung by that damaging Samsungs reputation slightly. Apple too was found to have copied some of the Samsung patents. Apple found to have violated one of the Samsung patents. However, the company is still free to sell the infringed devices to both the local market as well as other markets ( Hitt, Ireland, ‎Hoskisson,

International Marketing -Situational analysis, Marks and Spencer Essay

International Marketing -Situational analysis, Marks and Spencer FRANCE - Essay Example In France, the cultural influence as it affects consumer behavior is a function of the coverage in competition is within the primary shopping districts. Indeed, the level of rents and exposure to the high class, innovator consumers within the elite shopping districts is where retailers such as the Gap provide the largest and most targeted competition to M&S. In cities such as Lyon and Paris, the concentration of competition within the shopping districts has provided M&S with exposure to the consumer at the expense of a high degree of market competition. The particular taste of the French market is determined by benchmark research against competitor lines of clothing regarding differences between style and texture from market to market as well as market research including focus groups to better obtain an understanding of the changes in consumer choice. â€Å"M&S needs to carry out intense market research to identify the customers’ needs for styles and products. M&S must develop an effective customer opinion and feedback system, preferably through the internet, being more convenient.† (Docshare.com, 2009) Best, D.B. (2010), On the money: M&S "ahead of competition" in food, says Rose. Available from: http://www.just-food.com/analysis/ms-ahead-of-competition-in-food-says-rose_id111147.aspx [Accessed: October 22, 2011]. (2009),  Exploring Corporate Strategy in Marks & Spencer. Available from: http://www.google.com/search?sclient=psy-ab&hl=en&site=&source=hp&q=M%26S+France%2C+competitors&btnK=Google+Search#sclient=psy-ab&hl=en&source=hp&q=M%26S+France%2C+france%2C+market+segmentation&pbx=1&oq=M%26S+France%2C+france%2C+market+segmentation&aq=f&aqi=q-w1&aql=1&gs_sm=e&gs_upl=3807l9417l0l9580l33l23l1l0l0l2l1395l12673l4-3.14.1.2l21l0&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_cp.,cf.osb&fp=b571422ac7922aeb&biw=1600&bih=799 [Accessed: October 22, 2011]. Moore, C. M., Doherty, A. M., & Doyle, S. A. (2010). Flagship stores as a market entry method: The

Informative Speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Informative Speech - Essay Example Sometimes we pass the things that should affect our lives, directly or not. When did people become familiar with this term: Politics of global warming? May be it is a whole Era that we are entering right now, those who will live for the next century only in concerns of climate change. Simply speaking, I think depending on what angle the global warming takes; it will affect our generation by our country’s policy, international position, and plan of actions. How politicians decide what affects global warming, will determine how we will be living tomorrow. Politicians and republicans are starting to take some actions toward the climate change issue and thats to enable them to gain the publics voice to win the elections. The people also are starting to take some step towards having a better climate "In January 2012, just before South Carolina’s Republican presidential primary, the Charleston-based Christian Coalition of America, one of the most influential advocacy groups in conservative politics, flew Emanuel down to meet with the GOP presidential candidates. Perhaps an unlikely prophet of doom where global warming is concerned, the coalition has begun to push Republicans to take action on climate change. In sum, people should give real facts about global warming rather than using the subject for their political

Rituals of Islam Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Rituals of Islam - Assignment Example Prayer serves myriad purposes such as teaching self-discipline that is required to perform prayer regularly and at proper times, to perform ablution that precedes prayer. Prayer is the central point of the life of a Muslim, which enables him to maintain a strong link with their Lord or continue his inner struggle against temptation. These aspects remind a Muslims of the limited and temporary nature of this worldly life and the certainty of death and life to come. Thus, it enables a Muslim to maintain a balance between the needs and claims of this life and the Hereafter (Brockopp 156). Similarly, Jews also perform prayer (Tefilah) three times a day: morning, afternoon and evening. Like Muslims, they believe that prayer should be performed with utmost concentration as it reminds them of God’s presence and countless blessings. Primarily, Jewish prayers are recited in Hebrew like Muslim prayers are recited in Arabic. However, Jewish prayers can be offered in any vernacular language, as Jews believe that God can understand them regardless of the language used. Jewish prayer is usually performed in a group of at least ten people called ‘minyan’. In contrast, though congregational prayers are considered more meritorious for Muslims; however, there is no barrier to praying singly. Similarly, like Islamic prayers, concentration (kavanah), and mindset that one is conversing with God is a pre-requisite for Jewish prayers. Jews believe that daily prayers direct their soul, heart, and mind away from everyday matters towards God. It reminds them of their co re beliefs and intensifies their bond with God. Thus, the fundamental purposes and significance of prayers in Islam and Judaism is the

Creating Your Dream Job Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Creating Your Dream Job - Assignment Example With individuals with special education needs, such multidisciplinary/ multi-agency working becomes advantageous because the collaboration among professionals directly focus on the needs of the individual. To avoid conflicts between the professionals in a multidisciplinary setting, it is essential to have a key person to coordinate each one and ensure that target goals for the individual with special needs be met. In the United Kingdom, this person has the title of the Special Education Needs Coordinator (SENCO) (SENCO, 1997). In other countries, this title is also known as a case manager or simply a social worker assigned to the case. Hughes & Rycus (1998) explain that when an individual with a learning disability avails of multi-agency services, a social worker helps him source the services he needs for his disability in the medical and educational systems. Communication and cooperation among various professionals and agencies ensue in addressing the individual’s needs. Join t work by representatives of different agencies has been proven to accelerate the progress of interventions of young people with learning disabilities and ultimately contribute much to their well-being. Educators, therapists, psychologists, speech pathologists, physicians, social workers and even government officials join hands in the care and education of these young people to ensure their optimum growth and development. The ideal SENCO worker needs to have a college degree in Special Education, Social Work or Psychology so that he or she is knowledgeable with the needs of the clients who have special education needs. The SENCO should also be adept in networking and collaboration skills, since he or she will engage in interpersonal interactions with people from various disciplines. Good communication skills is a must. The SENCO has the following job description: Contacts prospective professionals to be part of the Multidisciplinary Team Screens and hires therapists Meet with team m embers individually and as a team, if necessary Communicates and coordinates with each member about the programs they are doing with the client Organizes schedules of both the client and the various professionals working with him Collects and collates reports from each team member Evaluates performance of each team member Organizes team management conferences Furnish general report about client’s progress 2. Design a compensation and benefits package related to your dream job. Every worker dreams of having a salary that is fair and compensable for all his efforts. It is logical and acceptable to receive a salary that is commensurate to the tasks involved in one’s job. As a SENCO, salary considerations should include the skills necessary for the individual to carry out the aforementioned tasks and that would be both professional and personal skills. The salary is not the only compensation sought by workers. A good compensation and benefits package specifically for a SEN CO could include the following: Reasonable remuneration Social security Medical Insurance Travel allowance Sponsorship to Training Seminar-Workshop/ Conferences Sick and Vacation Leaves Option for flexi-time Option for tele-commuting especially with coordination and clerical tasks Provision of gadgets and other equipment for easy communication and coordination (ex. Laptop, tablet computer, mobile phone, internet connection)

Analysis principles of logisties management within Mishubishi company Assignment

Analysis principles of logisties management within Mishubishi company in singapore - Assignment Example The competition in the local industries and markets grew stronger, and therefore, the production of products and services improved in the domain of quality in the recent years. The industry of sophisticated transportation developed as a niche of many industries (Spanos, Zaralis, & Lioukas, 2004). The companies have a duty to provide their clientele with their orders on their doorsteps, and therefore, the companies are busy in developing their private cargo services so that they can ship orders to their clients at a global level (Akhter, 2007). The company known as Mitsubishi has developed the most advanced transportation system in the world, and they have the proven capability to deliver products within one or two days beginning from the time when the customer placed the order (van de ven, 1992). The key of success in the industry of consumer goods lies with the power of marketing and advertisement (Beasley & Frigo, 2011). The ultimate level of success an organization can achieve thr ough placing the products into the market effectively and timely as well. However, the company does not use any single means of transportation. They decide according to the specific needs of the consumers (David, 2015). The company applies various statistical models in order to manage the demand of its products (Child, 1972). The applied techniques include regression analysis that measures the impact of different independent variables over a target one (David, 2015). The companies have a keen interest in knowing the semi-exact level of demand that they might face in the future (David F. R., 2011). The company uses linear programming as well that assists them in terms of balancing out productivity with quantity so that the organisation can create an optimal level of cost structure that will in turn generate maximum level of profitability in the market (Roulac, et al., 2005). The company operates with the help of having

Whole Foods Market 2007 Essay Example for Free

Whole Foods Market 2007 Essay Introduction John Mackey, current president and cofounder of founder of Whole Foods, opened â€Å"Safer Way† natural grocery store in 1978. The store had limited success as it was a small location allowing only for a limited selection, focusing entirely on vegetarian foods. John joined forces with Craig Weller and Mark Skiles, founders â€Å"Clarksville Natural Grocery† (founded in 1979), to create Whole Foods Market. This joint venture took place in Austin, Texas in 1980 resulting in a new company, a single natural food market with a staff of nineteen. Whole Foods Market was an early entrant into the organic food market and they have used their early mover advantage to solidify their position and continue their study growth. Synopsis of the Situation In 2005 Whole Foods Market acquired the Wild Oats Food chain. Wild Oats operates 100 full service stores in 24 states and Canada. With the changing economy and a more competitive industry landscape, John Mackey is uncertain about how to meet the company’s aggressive growth targets. Whole Foods Market’s objective is to reach $12 billion in revenue with 300+ stores in 2010 without sacrificing quality and their current reputation. Key Issues With increased demands from mainstream super markets also carrying organics, the demands for such products could outreach the limited supply. Changes in the Availability of Quality Natural and Organic Products could impact our Business. There is no assurance that quality natural and organic products will be available to meet our future needs. If conventional Whole Foods Market 20073 supermarkets increase their natural and organic product offerings or if new laws require the reformulation of certain products to meet tougher standards, the supply of products may be constrained. Any significant disruption in the supply of quality natural and organic products could have a material impact on our overall sales and cost of goods.

Trumps Campaign Rhetoric of Racism and Anti-Immigration

Trumps Campaign Rhetoric of Racism and Anti-Immigration Hatred and Fear in Trump’s Campaign Introduction In most of the campaign rallies for Trump’s presidency, he never shied away from making racist comments about the minority groups in the States. He often used racism as a tool to increase his popularity among his supporters. He claimed that he wanted to make America great again by getting rid of those he claimed were illegal immigrants who he considered to be the African-Americans, those of Mexican heritage and the Muslim faithful. Trump claimed that America without these people because they were allegedly involved in crimes such as drug trafficking and gang related violence. Some of his top advisers and cabinet picks have got history and career checkered by claims and accusations of behavior that is racially biased. Most of these people, such as, his senior strategist and counselor, national security advisor have all been accused of racially biased behavior. This is a strategy that Trump used very well and often in his campaign which is probably why he won the election. Some of these instances are discussed below. Racism against Latin Mexicans According to Koulish, Robert.   The Implications of a Lizard Election. (2016),  in May 2016, Donald Trump claimed that the judge who was presiding over a suit that had been staged by a class action against the for-profit Trump University would not be fair in the case because he was of Mexican origin. He used this opportunity to showcase his plans of building a wall between Mexico and America. This is a strategy that gained him a lot of support from people who felt that America needed to be protected from the allegedly drug producing Mexico. This was totally uncalled for given that the judge is an American citizen born in Indiana. In fact, the judge went after Mexican drug cartel in the late 1990s when he was a prosecutor making him to be targeted for assassination by the cartels. A homeless Latino man was beaten up by two brothers in Boston an event that is seen to be as a result of Trump’s anti-immigrant messages. When the brothers were questioned about it, one of them replied that Trump was right for stating that all illegal immigrants must be deported. Trump commented by stating that the two brothers were passionate and that they were well intentioned. He uses this strategy to gain support by promising that deporting illegal immigrants would increase job opportunities to the natives. The problem with the strategy is that it considered all Latinos as illegal immigrants which is not the case. Donald Trump’s campaign was full of racial hatred and ill comments about the minority groups. This in turn led to increase in the number of racial crimes in the states. A Puerto Rican man’s car was vandalized and in the month of November and racial messages scratched on the car which read â€Å"Trump† and â€Å"go home†. This shows that racism was always there in the community only that Trump had gone an extra mile to verbalize it. This strategy gained him votes of those who were racist and of the same thoughts. Trump came up with a statement that characterized Mexican immigrants as criminals and rapists. His explanations in a bid to defend himself are just another page from his book. Trump doesn’t recognize that there is much variety among the minority groups. Instead, he views racial and minority groups as simple monolith entities. Whenever he mentioned these groups, he used the article ‘The’ which personalizes the whole thing. This strategy makes his supporters personalize the matter too leading to rise in racial crimes Islamophobia According to Hochschild, Jennifer L. What Happened on November 8, and What Happens Next? A Tour of Social Scientists Answers. (2016),   in his campaign for the presidency, Trump launched a travel ban that targeted the Muslim community. In so doing, he restricted Syrian refugees and also immigrants from seven countries most of which were Muslim. He did this with the aim of trying to stop the terror attacks that had been earlier on witnessed in the states. This earned him votes of those people who felt that America needed to be safe and free of terrorism which was mainly due to Muslim extremists.   This is totally wrong and racist because the ban targeted all Muslims including those that were born in America. Trump attacked the parents of a Muslim US Army officer who died earlier while serving in the Iraq War. He claimed that the Islamic faith did not allow the mother of the soldier to speak about the matter on grounds that she was a woman. He did this aiming to point out the negativity of Islamic faith and the Muslims all together in a bid to gain himself votes. This was condemned by a lot of people especially politician for being a racial comment. There were also reports of letter sent to at least five mosques in California advocating for genocide. This was done by Trump supporters who were putting into action probably what trump had been advocating. This move is totally wrong since it advocates for racial violence which is a threat to America democracy Anti Blackness According to Monagan, Sharmon L. Swinney.  Fascist Trump How Donald Trumps Rhetoric Is Jeopardizing US National Security. Lulu Press, Inc, 2016,   in his campaign process, Trump refused to condemn his white supporters’ supremacists who were advocating for him. He ignored the opportunity to renounce a white nationalist and a former KKK leader David Duke who had said voting for any other candidate besides Trump would be treason to their heritage. This action shows that he fancied the support and comments of the supremacists and he intended to use that as a strategy to win him votes.   During his campaign period, Trump questioned whether president Obama was really born in America. He often claimed openly that the former president was not a legal president of the US. This claim against the former president was mainly because he was black. He said that the black community was involved in criminal gang activities and that they would be arrested. This claim was totally racially based and it was just a strategy to win him more votes by the whites. Trump also condoned the beating of a black lives matter protestant. He said that maybe the protestant should have been roughed up and that what he was doing was totally illegal. This move brought to him a lot of criticism especially from the media and social media. As much as it brought him negative criticism, it also gained him votes among the white voters and popularity. It is a strategy that he liked to use and most of the times it worked to his advantage. According to Cherkaoui, Mohammed. Donald Trump’s Presidency: New Dawn or Dooms Day?. (2016), Trump’s racial behavior goes way back. When he was the president of his family’s real estate company back in 1973, the company was sued by the justice department for alleged racial discrimination. This was against black people who were looking to rent apartments belonging to the company. As the lawsuit stated, the company charged the black applicants different rents and with conditions from what they charged the white applicants. This shows hatred for the black community which is very evident with Trump. When it came to hi campaigns, he never shied away from his racial comments. Conclusion Owing to these events of racially biased behavior, the quality of Americas democracy is at stake. This behavior has caused a lot of violence based on race. This has sparked a dangerous fire that could bring democracy to its knees if not death. A lot of democracies in the world fail due to violence based on race and religion which have been the key strategies in Trump’s campaign. If this behavior continues as before, the fate of America’s democracy would surely be doomed. References Cherkaoui, Mohammed. Donald Trump’s Presidency: New Dawn or Dooms Day?. (2016). Hochschild, Jennifer L. What Happened on November 8, and What Happens Next? A Tour of Social Scientists Answers. (2016). Koulish, Robert. The Implications of a Lizard Election. (2016). Maher, David J. Introduction to Constitution Day Lectures: Election 2016 and the Structural Constitution.  Md. L. Rev. Endnotes  76 (2016): 1. Monagan, Sharmon L. Swinney.  Fascist Trump How Donald Trumps Rhetoric Is Jeopardizing US National Security. Lulu Press, Inc, 2016.

Theories and concepts in leadership

Theories and concepts in leadership The term leader is defined as a person initiating interaction with other members of a group, a person who moves the group towards group role. To be called a leader, one must be performing leading roles repeatedly under varying conditions (English dictionary 1987; Gibb 1965) (leaders and leadership roles in relation to effective management of human resources by John Domingo) Social psychologist define leadership as the process through which one member of a group (its leader) influences other group members towards the attainment of specific group goals (Yukl,1994).Leadership however is essentially a process of mutual stimulation which by successful interplay of relevant individual differences controls human energy in pursuit of a common cause. (Ekong, 2003) Leadership calls for certain qualities or characteristics firstly on the part of the individual who want to become a leader and secondly on the part of a group who want to respond favorably to the individuals leading acts. In the first place, a leader must have the ability to influence others. This may be derived from his personal characteristics such as height, handsomeness or some general personal appeal, abilities to speak and win the crowd, the possession of specific skills known to and desired by the group, being wealthy and or generous, having known connections with external sources of power or occupying known official positions , and so forth. Studies in Nigeria have also shown that among other characteristics, age, being married, honesty, humility and industry are highly valued in being accepted as a community leader (Adeogun, 1976). Second, a leader must have the ability to identify with the group he leads. This entails the ability to place oneself in anothers position; consideration for others, emotional stability, readiness to delegate tasks, love for and constant identification with the group, selflessness, and loyalty to group ideas and goals, etc. A person may also assume leadership because of the innate conditioned need in him to lead and or dominate others. However, for his leadership to be accepted by the people he must have other desirable characteristics, which he would have to project it to the group In certain instances, people have assumed leadership on the assumption that they have a divine call or revelation to lead others. A number of self appointed prophets and religious leaders fall into this group. Apart from their claims to divine call, such people still have to develop other personal qualities mentioned earlier, and or show extraordinary power(e.g. healing, fortune telling, making of very po tent charms,etc)to be accepted by others. In all several types of leaders can be identified according to the following criteria: Path of attaining leadership position, power, authority, scope of influence and orientation. It must be noted before hand that these are not mutually exclusive categories. One leader can fall into all or most of these classifications which leads to types of leaders and path to leadership the first being situational leader this refers to one who foresees crises or the needs of a group and takes initiative in either rectifying the situation or mobilizing others to meet such a situation. And that is why it is argued that leaders are not born but made by situations. Situational leaders however persist as long as the condition which brought them into the forefront lasts. They can last longer only if the condition becomes institutionalized or else, by imposing themselves as leaders on the group. Then comes the dictatorial leader generally when a situation brings up a leader , there is the tendency for this individual to either feel that he has the obligation to remain at the head to watch over the interest of that group perpetually irrespective of their wishes ,or that the only befitting gratitude which the group he has helped could render him is to allow him to rule over them .In the absences of such expectations being voluntarily fulfilled , the individual then uses his initial advantage to paralyze initiative amongst his followers and subdue all manner of opposition. He would want to control all phases of life in the community and takes no suggestion from his subordinates except when such suggestions are in his own favour. Generally they succeed in antagonizing others to their disadvantage and so they never last for too long before being toppled. Military rulers who come in through coup Detat and do not want to return to the barracks are e.g. of dictatorial leaders. Traditional or hereditary leaders: this is one born into a hereditary leadership position which custom and tradition recognize. His leadership status is therefore ascribed rather than achieved. In othe r words, he has authority by virtue of the tradition of the community (Moss 1970). Charismatic leader charisma means a divine or spiritual power .it also means a personal character or quality that enable an individual to influence his fellow men. A charismatic leader is therefore a type of person who has such personal type of qualities like good looks , high level of intelligence , ability to speak, fearlessness and commitment to a certain idea which when taken altogether make people follow him almost without questioning his authority . He has a more or less magical appeal to the people and they may infact, come to regard him as their saviour. He himself may, as time goes on, begin to feel that he has been divinely inspired to lead. This type of leader tends to thrive most in crises situation where he can display or exhibit his qualities. A number of political leaders can be look upon as charismatic leaders. Professional leaders this is one who earns his leadership position by virtu e of his expertise or technical competence. His leadership is therefore not based purely on personal charm, although good personal characteristic can enhance his acceptability to the group he is leading. The community workers, the agricultural extension officer, the medical officer, the organization executive are all professional leaders. In their interaction and leadership roles they control their actions and direct these to conform to the expectations of the organizations they represent, the expectations of their peers within the profession, the expectations of the client population which they serve and to what they expect of themselves as individuals. Now comes the question what is the base of leadership, this was given by Cartwright and Zander Leadership involves the ability to influence, director control others which means that leadership involves the use of power. Weber (1961) defined power as the ability to affect ones own will against resistance from others. Power may be exercised by using force, we tend to think of power in relation to government, it is well to remember that it is exercised in many other context as well: in family, schools, hospitals and businesses wherever it is possible to manipulate conditions so that people must obey. The leader must have a recognized power, the sources of which may be within or outside the group led. When his power is from the group, this is spontaneously accorded him by his followers, whereas where the sources of powers is located externally there may be some elements of coercion. Cartwright and Zander (1960) have identified five bases of power of a group leader. These include reward p ower: Which derives from the belief on the part of the followers that they will be rewarded in some way for complying , in this instance ,power is exercised effectively whenever one party can grant or withhold what another party needs but cannot get elsewhere ; Coercive power: Which arises from the belief that non compliance will result in punishment, expert power: In this case when a person is evaluated to have needed knowledge , information or skill which cannot be obtained readily elsewhere ,that person holds expert power over the group., referent power : This is the power the leader has as a result of his having qualities which the group members like , admire and want to identify with. They submit to him because they identify with him. Legitimate power: this derives from the office or official position which the individual occupies and which gives him the right to cont5rol others and equally compels others to comply. The tax collector, the police all have legitimate powers to do their work. Power is usually conceived in terms of authority and of influence. Authority and influence are not synonymous as an individual who has influence may not have any authority. Authority is derived from official position and is the power attached to that office whereas influence resides within the individual on the basis of his possession of certain characteristics or qualities which make other people want to submit to him (Ekong, 2003).The basis on which authority is used affects the nature of the organization and of the society of which the organization is the part.(Leaders and leadership roles in relation to effective management of human resources by John Domingo in yang) (www.academicleadership.com) Discussion on leaders power and influence leads us to think of the styles of leadership. Leadership style is concerned with the behaviour of the leader towards his followers. .Ideally there is three leadership styles: Autocratic leadership style, in this all policies and procedures are determined by leader. The leader should take considerable responsibility for assigning the activity task and companions of each group member. Democratic leadership style, wherever possible the policies should be a matter of a group decision and discussion with active encouragement and assistance by the leader. Wherever, technical advice is needed the leader should try to suggest two or more alternative procedure from which choice can be made by the group members. Laissez-faire leadership style, in this leader should play a rather passive role in social participation and leave complete freedom for group or individual decisions in relation to activity and group procedure. Here the leader does not make any attempts to control the behaviour of the group members. He tends to relinquish his responsibility for most decisions in the organization to his subordinates.( Koehler . anatol and applbaum, 1976) The function of any leader is to guide his group members. He leads in so far as he is ahead of his group goals. The role of a leader as a guide connotes a person devoted to helping the group move effectively in the direction it chooses to move. The leader as a guide must assist the group to choose this direction judiciously based on his expert knowledge or other advantages. The leader is a group spokesman. The leader is a group harmonizer and an enabler. In other words he is the one who keeps interpersonal relations pleasant, arbitrates disputes, provides encouragement, gives the minority a chance to be heard and increases interdependence among members. He focuses discontent and enables group members verbalize such discontents, encourages organization and emphasizes common objectives of the group. As an enabler he strives to make the group realize its potentialities and strength in cooperative work. He stimulates insight rather than provides all the answers and provides support for o thers who may want to share in the responsibilities of group organization and action. He is also a group educator or an expert. People submit to him because he is capable of bringing them to see the solutions to their problems. As an expert he provides research data, technical experience, and resource material, advises on methods and assists in evaluation. This may also imply expertise in knowing the traditions and customs of the people and being able to act as a resource person on traditions and cultural issues. The leader is the symbol of is the groups ideals and an agent of control. People submit to control of a leader because he is able to discern their underlying and inarticulate aspirations and to give them expression. He has the passion for the cause he represents and can crystallize this within mens hearts. He is loyal to the ideals and aspirations of the group so members look up to him for direction. The leader exercises control over his followers and not necessarily by usi ng sanctions but by exhibiting certain qualities which nourish and maintain favourable sentiments e.g. courage, self sacrifice, hatred of vice, contempt for folly, a sense of national or community destiny, and so forth (Ekong 2003) (Leaders and leadership roles in relation to effective management of human resources by John Domingo in yang) Historical background of this topic shows us that research on leadership and has been a part of social psychology since its very earliest days: and in recent decades, this research has spilled outside social psychology to the closely related fields of industrial/organizational psychology and organizational behaviour .(Fiedler,1994;GreenbergBaron,1995).leadership is an inherently subjective subject with many definitions associated to it (Zaharah Hassan 2004) .most of those definitions found in the literature agreed that leadership is mainly concerned with a person who tries to influence groups or followers to achieve certain objectives .the literature also indicates that there are various theories describing leadership such as the traits that leads to successful leaders (Stogdill,1950),and the roles that a leader needs to perform (Mintzberg,1973;Yukl1994). Early researchers viewed leadership in terms of `great person theory-according to this theory ,great leaders posses certain traits that set them apart from most human beings ;until 1890 research designed to test the theory generally failed to yield positive findings(Geier,1969,Yukl1991). In recent years ,however this situation has changed greatly more sophisticated research methods ,coupled with a better understanding of basic dimensions of personality ,have led researchers to conclude that leaders do indeed differ from other persons in several important ways(Kirkpatrick locke,1991) specifically ,recent findings(e.g. JudgeBono ,2000) suggest that several of what psychologists often term the Big Five Dimensions of Personality may play an important role in leadership(Barrickmount/;1991). Still we question what characteristics do these leaders have? Leaders are known to have their own leadership style and can be said to be unlike any other leader which is to a great extent true .Literature points to the styles and approach that leaders need to adopt such as shown by early studies conducted by Lowa university ,Ohio university and Michigan universities (Nahavandi,19770)leadership theories also takes into account of the contingencies and situations they face(Fielder,1967; Hersey and Blanchard ,1988).more recent research includes transformational (Burns,19780) and servant leadership (Greenleaf ,1998).Recent writings also noted that there are notions of leadership that are assumed either implicitly or explicitly linking leadership to gender (Zaharah Hassan 2004).Further in this field of study ,studies have shown that people in leadership positions are thought to be or characterized more as men over women ,gender stereotypes ,( Myres 2002) are peoples beliefs about how men and women behave .A major concern dealing with gender stereotypes, are the effects they may have on leadership. Some research shows that these stereotypes may present obstacles for women who wish to compete for a leadership position .Hosoda and Stone(2000) found that the actual stereotype of men and women have remained relatively unchanged from 10-20 years ago, and also found that masculine stereotypes was evaluated less favorable and the feminine stereotype was evaluated more favorab ly over a period of 21 years ,this was done through studying seventy eight attributes of which twelve were `key masculine attributes and rest were associated with feminism .This suggest that people believed that men and women generally behave differently from one another at the same time there were research on effect of perceived attractiveness on leadership of women .a study conducted by Sigel man (1986) found attractiveness a plus for males running for political office ,but not for female candidates. Women were not discriminated against for being pretty but they were not helped by attractiveness as were the men (Sigel 1986). In recent years, transformational and transactional leadership construct has become a popular theme in leadership studies in the general management domain. Unlike task versus relationship oriented leadership, the transformational -transactional leadership notion is viewed as a continuum allowing for individuals to employ transformational and transactional qual ities at the same time (Bass 1985, 1990;Bryman,1992) .Bass furthered Burns view of transforming leadership to be a leadership style that gives insight into the importance placed on certain outcomes and promotes development and vision in subordinates .Bass also identified five main components to transformational leadership-charisma ,inspiration ,intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, and extra effort . Burns (1978, as cited in Mher, 1997) suggest that transactional leadership emphasizes exchanges between leader and follower and how needs of subordinates can be fulfilled. Recent research (Hack man, Furniss, Hills Paterson, 1992) implies that to be effective leaders must display both feminine and masculine behaviour. Hack man et al (1992) found that transformational leadership requires a gender balance of strong masculine and feminine characteristics. Transformational leadership is generally held to be a superior form of leadership, built on transactional leadership, b ut not vice-versa .there is a line of argument in leadership literature contending that female leaders tend to be more transformational than male leaders (Rosener, 1990), since transformational leadership emphasizes on nurturing of subordinates and on the process of socialization, the nurturing qualities of women are particularly well developed in comparison to men. A cross cultural study by Gibson (1995) involving Norway, Sweden, Australia and the US, found that male leaders were more likely to emphasize goal setting than female leaders and female leaders more likely to focus on facilitating interaction then male leader this trend among women leaders who also emphasized in the Malaysian public sector leadership (Raffia Salim 2007, Halipah Esa 2007). However, other scholars such as Butterfield and Powell (1981) Campbell et al (1998) and Ron K (1993) all have concluded that leadership style is independent of gender and that they exhibit similar amounts of task oriented and people ori ented leadership behaviour. Kolb (1999) has asserted that two decades of research indicates few, if any, leadership differences in the leadership behavior of male and female. Leadership in community: Moving from Gender the research on leadership has moved on to study of communities, organization and defence forces. The word community is an umbrella term that is defined and applied in a myriad of ways. For instance, it may be used to refer to refer to geographic communities where members are based on region (lfe, 1997; Maimunah Ismail, 2001); unit of social organization such as worker and community associations (Maimunah Ismail, 2001); cultural Groups that can be identified through religions or races (Maimunah Ismail, 2001); or virtual communities, where members main form of contact is through electronic media (lfe, 1997). Communities of circumstances constitute another possible form of community such community or Group might emerge, for e.g. when floods occur across different regions and those most affected feel connected to one another (Marsh 1999). Finally there are communities of interest, where identity groups form to lobby Government for some kind of policy change or sponsorship various definitions of community development and organization are available in literature. One of the early definitions that were widely accepted was developed by the U.S.international cooperation (1956) as cited by Maimunah Ismail (1999).It emphasized the process where individuals in the community joined forces to plan and take actions regarding community problems. They identify community problems and needs plan and conduct activities together using available resources. They also sought outside help from Government and private organization. On the other hand, the United Nations (1975), indicated that community development is a process whereby the efforts of individuals in the community were combined with efforts of Government and no bodies to bring about improvement socially and economically. These efforts should lead to national development (Jones, 1982). Kirk and Shutter (2004) suggested a community development model that is more collaborative and co mprehensive in nature that comprises of three components leading change through dialogue, collective empowerment and connective leadership. It is said that children are the future of a country and they are the ones who will be leading the nation tomorrow, therefore it is really a matter of great concern that how should these young generations be groomed, what should be the crux of their positive development? It is here where the role of developmental psychology is needed .development after all is a process of growth and increasing competence. In the important sub domain of social and emotional development, however we are often more articulate about how things go wrong than how they go right. We have a burgeoning field of developmental psychopathology but have a more diffuse body of research on the pathways whereby children and adolescents become motivated, directed, socially competent, compassionate, and psychologically vigorous adults. Corresponding to that we have numerous researc h based programmes for youth aims curbing drug use, violence ,suicide, teen pregnancy, they lack a vigorous applied psychology of how to promote positive youth development. The place for such a field is apparent to anyone who has had contact with a cross-section of American adolescents. In such a group one encounter a surprising number of youth who appeared to be bored, unexcited about their lives it is in this article of towards positive youth development Reed W. Larson focused on extra co curricular activities helping in positive development of youth. Here when the samples of self report on 16000 moments in the daily experience of a representative sample of white, working and middle class young adolescents-a group that seemingly has everything going for them. These youth reported feeling bored for 27 %.( 4300) of these random moments (Larson Richards, 1991). Of course these individuals differed in these rates ,but what was surprising was that honor student were as likely as those involved in delinquent activities ,in many cases for more than 50% of random moments . The litany of explanation for this boredom -theres nothing to do in life, the odyssey is boring, and they communicate ennui of being trapped in the present, waiting for someone to prove them that life is worth living. a central question of youth development is how to get adolescents fire lit ,how to have them develop the complex disposition skills needed to take charge of their lives .this calls for development of initiative in them .The construct initiative is closely related to capacity for agency or for autonomous action that others have discussed (Brandst-idter,1998;Deci 1995;Ryan1993). It consist of the ability to be motivated from within to direct attention and efforts towards a challenging goal , initiative is the core requirement for other components of positive development, such as creativity ,leadership, Altruism and civic engagement. Reed W.Larson argues that western adolescents life do es not provide abundant daily opportunities for the development of initiative and it is in these activities such as participation in sports, hobbies, arts and in any youth organization opens the door of initiative within. positive youth development however has had not a strong base of research and theory (Brown 1988;Dubassnider 1993,Murray foster).the anthropologist Benedict (1938) observed that many traditional society provide a progressive set of steps that socialize youth into the roles and responsibilities of adulthood, whereas adults are required to be independent and suddenly take charge whereas in western society there is marked discontinuity between what we expect of adults , especially with regard to initiative. Benedict pointed out that children in our society are treated as dependent and given few responsibilities ,whereas adults are required to be independent and suddenly take charge of all parts of their life9et Sampson,1988) ,thus in order to develop initiative youths need a series of experience opportunity(1938).participation in extra co curricular activity and community youth organization has been fond to be correlated with higher self-esteem ,control over ones own life etc .(Holland Andre1978) the problem with these relationship is that participation in these activities is selective ,participation is greater in among higher socio economic status along with parental support(butcher,1985, Holland Andrà © 1987) once these factors are controlled the relationship participation and positive outcomes are reduced .(AgnewPeterson1989) this claim however is more adequately tested by longitudinal studies .number of studies have fond association between higher school and adult participation in political organization (Dematrini 1983);the arts (blom1985) sports (HowellMeckenzie,1987) but do not adequately control for the possibility that prior unmeasured third variables .studies that control for some of the variables that effect high school participation s uch as SES ,grade point average(GPA)still finds effect.(Hanks and Eckland 1978) found that youth who participated in activities were more likely to be involved in voluntary associations at age 30,even with controls for initial SES and academic aptitude .Eccles and barber (1999) fond that participation in structured youth activities in 10th predicted positive changes .(Marsh 1992) too found a positive change with respect to self concept . Classic sociological theories recognizes that joining a group leads to socialization (Berger and luckman,1966).the most extensive and most psychological discussion about the process of social integration are provide by Youniss ,Yates who have focused on how participation in service activities provide a context for civic participation (1997). This opens another avenue to the study of leadership .How far specific training in a particular field can help in mastering and developing a polished skill in the concerned field. (Toward a psychology of positiv e youth development by reed w. Larson) The construct of youth leadership and life skills development is a complex arrangement of experience, backgrounds and attitudes. In the measure of leadership skills of agriculture students leadership and life skills development were defined as skills in communication ,decision making, interpersonal relationship, learning and resource management, understanding self and working with group .participation in FFA leadership activities in combination with the variables after school jobs, years in the FFA .self reported cumulative grades and gender accounted for 22.3% of the variance in youth leadership and life skills development scores. As an addition to the body of knowledge surrounding youth leadership and life skills development this study has revealed an increase in the overall amount of variance explained for this concept, with less than 25% of the variance explained in the phenomenon known as leadership development.(journal of agricultural education24 volume.38, 3,1997 Garry J Winge nbach Alan A Kahler) . The hypothesis of this study is that, the leadership quality is higher in the students who undergo NCC training than regular students who do not take NCC training. Today NCC is second largest youth organization in the world and the largest in India (a hand book on NCC) .it is one of the major second line defence force which is known for imparting training in military aspects, it has now expanded its horizon and now aims at developing character qualities amongst cadets and making them into good leaders of tomorrow as well as useful citizens so that they can take their appropriate place in all walks of life in the service of the nation. The qualities of leadership, discipline, spirit de coups, courage and confidence with secular outlooks, which are hallmark of a leader are inculcated in the cadets through a well conceived programme of institutional training combined with adventure, sports and outdoor activities plus many other community development programme -such as disaster managemen t ,adult literacy ,traffic control, village adoption ,tree plantation, blood donation are taken up which gives youths a comprehensive and a very good platform to take initiative in almost aspects of life. not only this the camps are conducted which constitutes the most vital part of national cadet corps where cadets get the thrill and joy of outdoor and community living stay together no matter how rich or how poor they are and thus teaches socialization, team spirit, unity in diversity through its motto of unity and discipline. (www.ncc.org.sg) The present study not only aims at adding more knowledge to the existing body of researches in past but it is also trying to go beyond the normal theories of styles, approaches and is focusing on a universal organization that aims at instilling leadership amongst youth .in todays world we have large number of organizations where we need leaders to lead the team to achieve the organizational goals ,whether its the field of scientific research ,the corporate ,the defence, the political world the non governmental organizations etc. thus, it would be interesting to know how far it has been successful in this endeavor. Method Participants In this study there were two groups consisting of total 60 subjects of which there were thirty NCC students who had participated in various training camps of NCC and few also had an opportunity to attend the prestigious national and international camps like republic day camp and youth exchange programmes, many have also attended mountaineering and parasailing courses, horse riding cum show jumps. These Students were taken from camp in Bison polo grounds Secunderabad. The non NCC students were the other regular college students taken from colleges like St. Anns, Bhavans, CBIT, St.Francis, etc. all the sixty subjects were in the age group of (17-22) years. Material The research instrument used for the study was the Leadership Characteristics and Skills Survey questionnaire. The first section of the survey consisted of a small section on personal information like name, age, category (NCC and non-NCC), and gender. The second part of the survey contained thirty questions which focused on individuals behaviour in a team. Leadership Characteristics and Skills Survey was assessed on five point Likert scale ranging from a score of (very weak-1, moderately weak-2, adequate-3, moderately strong-4, very strong-5). The purpose of this research was to find reliable information. Design In this study the students both from NCC and NON-NCC category formed the independent variables. The leadership qualities which was assessed was the dependent variable for this research .the age group from 17-22 was chosen for assessing the leadership qualities because the experimenter was keen in knowing whether a special course or training helps in enhancing ones managerial skills and also does it really makes a leader out of an ordinary human being. The other reason behind taking this age group was that the youngsters are the future leaders of tomorrow, so how far a youth organization like NCC has been successful in this endeavor of grooming future leaders, since NCC students basically fall in this age group and that is the reason this age was chosen for the study. Procedure In order to

Explore the Stylistic Conventions of Both - Notes from a Small Island - :: English Literature

Explore the Stylistic Conventions of Both - Notes from a Small Island - and - In Patagonia - and account for their different audiences. Bill Bryson and Bruce Chatwin both participate in the ability to Travel write. Travel writing is were one would travel and then list in chronological order what they have experienced. Bill Bryson is able to do this in an entirely different fashion, to Bruce Chatwin. Bill Bryson was born in Des Moines, Iowa, in 1951. Bryson settled in England in 1977, and lived for numerous years with his British wife and children in Yorkshire. Bryson then went back to America, but has now returned to England. As well as writing ‘Notes from a small Island’ Bryson has also written ‘down Under’ ‘Notes from a big Country’ ‘A walk in the Woods’ ‘Made in America’ ‘Neither here nor there’ and ‘The lost Continent’.[1] Bruce Chatwin was born in Sheffield in 1940. After attending Marborough School he began work as a Porter at Sotheby’s, which is an auctioneer. Chatwin became one of the youngest directors at Sotheby’s and then Chatwin abandoned his job to explore the world, as his dedication was travel writing. During 1972 and 1975 Chatwin worked for the Sunday Times and quickly announced his departure for in a telegram; ‘Gone to Patagonia for six months’. This journey motivated to write the first of his books which was simply named, In Patagonia. In Patagonia won The Hawthornden Prize and the E.M. Forster award and launched his writing profession. Two of Chatwins films have been made into feature films, The Viceroy Oiudah (retitled Cobra Verde) directed by Werner Herzog and the British film. Bruce Chatwin has also written ‘On the Black Hill’, ‘The Song Lines’ ‘The Viceroy of Ouidah’.[2] Before Bryson’s begins his story, he writes a prologue of his first encounter with Britain and how inviting it was for him. Bryson elaborates on why he returned to England in 1995. Bill Bryson gives an interpretation of his first time in England which was more exclusively Dover in 1973. In the front of Bill Bryson’s book is an image of Britain surrounded by small sketches. Once I had read I became conscious that this map mirrored the style of writing used in the book, light-hearted. Chatwin developed an interest for Patagonia at a young age. Chatwin tells us about his earliest memories of his grandmother, and being at her house; ‘In my grandmother’s dining room was a glass-fronted cabinet†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢[3] Chatwin is talking about his personal experience directly, although he doesn’t begin with his journey in Patagonia. Chatwin is unfolding this tale to his audience in great detail; this story helps the reader

It Is Contagious :: essays papers

It Is Contagious "Traces of the Stealth_c Virus have been found in memory. Reboot to a clean system disk before continuing with this installation." This was the message staring back at me from one of the computer monitors at my office. Questions raced through my mind. "Stealth_c?" "What's a system disk?" "How am I supposed to install anti-virus software if the computer system already has a virus?" As a discouraging feeling of helplessness came over me, I thought of all the people who had loaded something from disk on this box or who had used this box to access the Internet. Because there was no virus protection in the first place, it was going to be very difficult to determine how many floppy disks and hard drives had been infected. I wished I had learned about computer viruses a long time ago. What is a computer virus, anyway? Is it a computer with a cold? A computer "virus" is called a virus because of three distinct similarities to a biological virus. They are: ? They must have the ability to make copies of, or replicate, itself. ? They must have a need for a "host," or functional program to which it can attach. ? The virus must do some kind of harm to the computer system or at least cause some kind of unexpected or unwanted behavior. Sometimes computer viruses just eat up memory or display annoying messages, but the more dangerous ones can destroy data, give false information, or completely freeze up a computer. The Stealth_c virus is a boot sector virus, meaning that it resides in the boot sectors of a computer disk and loads into memory with the normal boot-up programs. The "stealth" in the name comes from the capability of this virus to possibly hide from anti-virus software. Virtually any media that can carry computer data can carry a virus. Computer viruses are usually spread by data diskettes, but can be downloaded from the Internet, private bulletin boards, or over a local area network. This makes it extremely easy for a virus to spread once it has infected a system. The aforementioned Stealth_c virus was transported by the least likely avenue; it was packaged with commercial software. This is an extremely rare occurrence, as most software companies go to great lengths to provide "clean" software. There is a huge commercial interest in keeping computers virus-free. Companies stand to lose literally thousands of dollars if they lose computer data to a virus. An immense amount of time can be lost from more productive endeavors if someone has to check or clean each computer

The Fourth Reich

The Fourth Reich The Modern Weimar Republic Foreword In recent old ages there is no denying that the Global Economic Crisis has grown to be a looming issue in our world’s society. The separation of economic categories has become such a job that it non merely drives our political spectrum, but alterations society as a whole. In 2010 Greece was rocked by economic desolation after they joined the Eurozone. Overspending caused monolithic reverberations in the work force doing the youth unemployment rate above 55 % , a crisis that parallels America’s Great Depression. It was shortly after this epidemic that public violences and rebellion erupted in the streets, with citizens and extremists likewise harking for all out revolution. Among the pandemonium, two equaling political groups arose from the ashes of ravaged, modern twenty-four hours, Greece. Representing the extremist left was an anarchist motion with no existent political docket, instead merely an onslaught of public public violences and boisterous devastation. Representing the extremist right, nevertheless is a lifting political force known under the [ now impermanent ] name, Golden Dawn. Similar to most radical groups, Golden Dawn gained its popularity shortly after economic and political prostration. This signifier of extremist overthrow non merely applies to Greece, but it’s normally the manner most Middle Eastern countries operate today. By subverting one oppressive power a much worse power takes its topographic point. [ Ex. Mubarak and the Arab Spring ] Or in layman’s footings, it’s merely by the fires of war and the depredation of depression that people are willing to travel to extremes to happen a remedy ; it is that same sort of despair that caused the Weimar Republic to fall into the custodies of Adolf Hitler. The Munich Putsch In 1923, Germany was devastated by reparations from the pact of Versailles. In kernel, a prohibition of trade and hideous war costs caused the state to travel into economic convulsion. To set this epidemic into position a loaf of staff of life in 1919 had a entire cost of 1 grade ; by 1924 that same loaf of staff of life cost approximately 100 billion Markss. In fact money was so hopelessly devalued that citizens found more usage in utilizing it as kindling than as currency. There is no uncertainty that citizens were angry, revelatory fortunes over the class of merely a few old ages would be dismaying to state the least. Conformity to the current authorities criterion wasn’t an option, solutions had to be created, non ignored. These hideous fortunes would name for a extremist reformation, no affair what the cost. The initial creative activity of the Nazi party was regarded by the Weimar leaders as a terrorist organisation. However, to the German citizens they were revolutionists with solutions. On the fatal dark of November 8Thursday1923, Hitler and a brigade of six 100 ‘Storm Troopers’ invaded Munich in an effort to take over the metropolis. Poorly armed and outmatched, 16 Nazi members were killed and Adolf Hitler was imprisoned. It was shortly after this motion that the Nazi party was banned from the polls indefinitely. — – Similar to the province of Germany in the 1920’s, Greece has been devastated by a Global Economic Crisis. As mentioned before, unemployment is at an all-time high, about dual that of the United States. Rebellions are common, turning more popular with every passing twenty-four hours and the actions of politicians are invariably corrupted, non to advert advancement that is often stonewalled. Resistance of Golden Dawn have late reported a signifier of Judicial lenience, saying that there are legion corrupted functionaries, even within jurisprudence enforcement. It is estimated that over one 100 immigrants to Greece hold gone losing and many suspect that the act is politically motivated. Amid the confusion and curruption, Golden Dawn continued to be the lone option, shortly to make the 3rd most powerful political party in the part. Public credence of a political party wouldn’t needfully be a bad thing, it shows integrity and growing. However the edginess generated about Golden Dawn isn’t based on simple paranoia. The party platform is blatantly clear about the ‘purification of the Grecian race, ’ you don’t have to delve far to bring out that the organisation is structured like a Neo-Nazi, fascist motion. Their symbolism is strikingly similar to the Hakenkreuz, and their gestures of pride parallel that of the ill-famed Nazi salutation. Aside from the fact that they relish in Nazi symbolism, there lies something genuinely terrific, the philosophy itself. Harmonizing to beginnings within Golden Dawn, the journal of Joseph Goebbels, an ill-famed Nazi practician, is used as philosophy. In the 1940’s Goebbels was polar in the Nazi propaganda plan. He was considered so profoundly devoted to the cause of the Aryan race that he finally committed self-destruction and took the life of his six immature kids upon hearing the intelligence of Adolf Hitler’s decease. Because of Goebbels actions many protagonists of Judaic freedom were silenced by Nazi rhetoric. — – The Cult of Personality The Nazi party wouldn’t have been about every bit successful as they were if it hadn’t been for Adolf Hitler. Not merely was he doubtless magnetic, he seemed to be echt about his beliefs. However, it wasn’t merely Hitler who electrified the universe, characters like Mussolini, FDR, and Stalin all played a polar function in reconstituting the universe as we knew it. Queerly, Golden Dawn lacks a magnetic leader like that of the pre-World War two epoch. Nikolaos Michaloliakos, a name seldom heard during the rebellions, started Golden Dawn in the early 70’s. His motive is basically a dominant Grecian race. ( Sound familiar? ) After he tried to catch an indispensable portion of Greece, Michaloiakos was shortly imprisoned for offenses against the state and the slaying of rival party advocator, Pavlos Fysass. Because Michaloiakos remains to be a political mystery, radicalism flickers from reading of Golden Dawn’s already extremist beliefs. It is entirely based on individuality that Golden Dawn remains a popular power. This event parallels something scarily similar that occurred in the Weimar Republic. After the apprehension of Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf was written and released to the populace. Because of its incoherent construction, many persons within the Nazi party interpreted the beliefs for themselves. Unusually, it’s because of individuality and reading that radicalism physiques into something genuinely terrific ; take for illustration the modern terrorist organisation, Anonymous. Work Cited Hatzis, Aristides. â€Å" Watch Greece – It May Be the following Weimar Germany. †Financial Times. N.p. , 6 Nov. 2013. Web. 24 Feb. 2014. â€Å" Hyperinflation of the Weimar Republic in 1923 Germany. †Hyperinflation of the Weimar Republic in 1923 Germany. Scientific Market Analysis, n.d. Web. 26 Feb. 2014. Smith, Helena. â€Å" Greece ‘s Golden Dawn to Form New Party If Banned from Polls. †The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 03 Feb. 2014. Web. 28 Feb. 2014. Smith, Helena. â€Å" Fears over Disappearance of 150 Syrian Refugees from Grecian Village. †The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 24 Dec. 2013. Web. 28 Feb. 2014

Development politics-political science

The development of economic thought on proper public policy has followed (if not led) political tides in developing countries. In the expedition for paradigm dominance in economics and sub disciplines such as development economics, neo-classicism appears to have won out.The market leaning thrust of the development â€Å"counter revolt† is now reflected in the conditionality underlying international policy restructuring, that is, the escalating pressure exerted on developing countries to lessen the scope of government intervention, craft more open policies, and the distended use of conditional development assistance as a means of enforcing conformity. This must be interpreted from the viewpoint of a more invasive worldview that has perceived excessive government contribution as becoming more obtrusive in more developed and developing countries alike.Mill defined clearly the policy reform of classical economic liberalism. Thus it is helpful to look at the justified government in terventions listed in his Principles. He begins his chapter ‘Of the Grounds and Limits of the Laissez-faire or Non-interference Principle’ by distinctive types of intervention. The first he calls authoritative intrusion, by which he means legal prohibitions on private actions. Mill argues on moral grounds that such prohibitions must be limited to actions that affect the interests of others.Although even here the obligation of making out a case always deceit on the defenders of legal prohibitions. Scarcely several degree of utility, short of absolute necessity, will rationalize a prohibitory regulation, unless it can also be made to suggest itself to the general principles. The second form of intervention he calls government agency, which exists ‘when a government, instead of issuing a command and enforcing it by penalties, [gives] advice and promulgates information . . . or side by side with their [private agents] arrangements [creates] an agency of its own for li ke purpose'.Thus the government can provide various private and public goods, but without prohibiting competing private supply. The examples Mill gives are banking, education, public works, and medicine. (Mill, 1909) The majority of the government interventions Mill permits belong to this second category. But he warns against their costs: they have great fiscal consequences; they boost the power of the government; all additional function undertaken by government is a fresh job imposed upon a body already charged with duties.So that most things are ill done; much not done at all,' and the consequences of government agency are expected to be counterproductive. In a passage that is prophetic about the structure of numerous public enterprises in developing countries, he writes: The inferiority of government agency, for example, in any of the common operations of industry or commerce, is proved by the fact, that it is hardly ever able to maintain itself in equal competition with individu al agency, where the individuals possess the requisite degree of industrial enterprise, and can command the necessary assemblage of means.All the facilities which a government enjoys of access to information; all the means which it possesses of remunerating, and therefore of commanding the best available talent in the market–are not an equivalent for the one great disadvantage of an inferior interest in the result. (Mill, 1909) On these grounds he concludes: ‘few will dispute the more than sufficiency of these reasons, to throw, in every instance, the burden of making out a strong case, not on those who resist, but on those who recommend, government interference.Laissez-faire, in short, should be the general practice: every departure from it, unless required by some great good, is a certain evil'. (Mill, 1909) But Mill also gives a bridge to the ideas that were later to weaken economic liberalism. The most significant of these was the collective ideal of equality, which was later used to develop a powerful cure to the liberal tradition through Marxism and was executed as state socialism by the Bolsheviks.Thus Mill permits various forms of government agency; numerous of which echo what later came to be accepted as causes of market failure, that prima facie could rationalize appropriate government intervention. Such grounds might be externalities in the stipulation of basic education and public services (like lighthouses), and the require to administer financial institutions against fraud, or to resolve diverse forms of what today would be called Prisoners' Dilemmas. Mill also cited the relief of poverty as another potential reason for government involvement:The question arises whether it is better that they should receive this help exclusively from individuals, and therefore uncertainly and casually, or by systematic arrangements in which society acts through its organ, the state (Mill, 1909). Hence, he argued, the claim to help, . . . created by d estitution, is one of the strongest which can exist; and there is prima facie the amplest reason for making the relief of so extreme an exigency as certain to those who require it, as by any arrangements in society it can be made (Mill, 1909).On the other hand, in all cases of helping, there are two sets of consequences to be considered; the consequences of the assistance, and the consequences of relying on the assistance. The former are generally beneficial, but the latter, for the most part, injurious; so much so, in many cases, as greatly to outweigh the value of the benefit. And this is never more likely to happen than in the very cases where the need of help is the most intense.There are few things for which it is more mischievous that people should rely on the habitual aid of others, than for the means of subsistence, and unhappily there is no lesson which they more easily learn. The problem to be solved is therefore one of peculiar nicety as well as importance; how to give th e greatest amount of needful help, with the smallest encouragement to undue reliance on it (Mill, 1909). This is a discerning summary of both the attractions and consequences of welfare programmes, which has since been authorized empirically.Though, by assigning a larger and endogenous role for the state or public sector in the economy, Keynes set the way for the explanation of development policy in terms of a discretionary, type of economic management at the state level. Thus, planning came to be viewed as a helpful mechanism for overcoming the deficits of the market-price system, and for enlisting public sustain to attain national objectives linked to economic growth, employment formation, and poverty mitigation.It was against this backdrop that the pioneers of contemporary development economics developed Keynesian and Pigovian critiques of the market-price means to advocate the need for planned development. Since development could not be left completely to market forces, governme nt investment was thought to be desired to create â€Å"social transparency capital† as a means of laying the basics for the developing countries to â€Å"take off† on the flight toward self-sustained economic growth.From the viewpoint of Pigovian externalities, the private sector could not be estimated to invest at adequately high levels in the formation of such forms of capital as of increasing returns to scale, technological externalities, and the reality that such investments tend to exhibit the characteristics of public goods. As neo-classical-type adjustment or marginal changes could not effectively address the problem at hand, planning was visualized as a necessary means of developing macroeconomic targets and providing the organizing efforts and consistency requisite for the preferences of society to be recognized.In the economic management of both the more developed and less developed countries, a good deal of controversy has surrounded Keynes's advocacy of mo re state intervention. As he wrote in his Essays in Persuasion, â€Å"I think that capitalism, wisely managed, can probably be made more efficient for attaining economic ends than any alternative system yet in sight, but that in itself, it is in many ways extremely objectionable. Our problem is to work out a social organization which shall be as efficient as possible without offending our notions of a satisfactory way of life. â€Å"Contextually, Keynes' rejection of laissez-faire cannot be construed as an support of the bureaucratic type of planning that was once popular in former socialist countries and the developing world. The issue had surfaced throughout the celebrated Socialist Calculation debate of the interwar years as a means of showing why a decentralized market economy is probable to provide a greater degree of socio-economic coordination than a central one. Specifically, Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek (1935) had argued that growing political involvement in the economi c system would ultimately lead to totalitarian dictatorship.Hayekian anti-Keynesianism was to conduct in the idea of a â€Å"dirigiste dogma,† or the potential dangers innate in government solutions to economic and social problems. Yet, it can be contradicted that the â€Å"dogma† was perhaps more pertinent to his disciples than to Keynes himself. As, his analysis of the British economy throughout the thirties was based on assumptions concerning rationally functioning markets. The case for planning was restricted to the concern of a macroeconomic framework in which microeconomic choices could be reasonably orchestrated.The guiding viewpoint was that in the absence of a proper macroeconomic â€Å"enabling† environment, markets will engender the kind of stagnation implied in underemployment equilibrium. At the international level, as a result, the counter-revolution was translated into a revisionist loom to North-South relations based on an extolment of the advant ages of Adam Smith's â€Å"invisible hand† over the difficulties of the â€Å"visible hand† of statism. Contextually, the â€Å"poverty of development economics† has been accredited to the â€Å"policy induced, and thus far from expected distortions formed by irrational dirigisme† (Lal 1983: 1).In his view, conventional development economics was not simply too dogmatic and dirigiste in its orientation, but also sustained by a number of â€Å"fallacies,† including: (i) the belief that the price-market mechanism must be displaced rather than supplemented; (ii) that the efficiency gains from enhanced allocation of given resources are quantitatively irrelevant; (iii) that the case for free trade lacks soundness for developing countries; (iv) that government control of prices, wages, imports, and the allocation of productive assets is a indispensable prerequisite for poverty improvement; and (v) that rational maximizing behavior by economic agents is no t a common phenomenon. Besides advocating a smaller role for the state, Lal also joins hands with Hayek in arguing that nothing must be done about income distribution. â€Å"We cannot . . . identify equity and efficiency as the sole ends of social welfare . . . Other ends such as liberty are also valued. . .. [And] if redistribution entails costs in terms of other social ends which are equally valued it would be foolish to disregard them and concentrate solely on the strictly economic ends† (Lal 1983: 89). This argument can be construed to mean that no matter how considerable the welfare gains that are probable to accrue from redistributive policies, no liberty is ever worth trading or forfeiting. Besides the ideological tunnel vision that lies at the heart of such a claim, it can be argued that the potential of attaining authentic development depend as much on the sensitivity of the state to distributive justice as on the competence and locative goals stressed in neoclassica l economics or the â€Å"liberty† that is the focus of â€Å"new† classical political economy.Peter Bauer, another inner figure in the counter-revolution, challenges the major variations in economic structure and levels of developmental attainment among countries must be explained in terms of equivalent differences in resource endowments and individualistic orientations. This viewpoint rests on a basic belief that the inherent potentials of individuals can be drawn out throughout the play of market forces. Contextually, he states (1981: 8s), â€Å"the precise causes of differences in income and wealth are complex and various. . . . [I]n substance such differences result from people's widely differing attitudes and motivations, and also to some extent from chance circumstances. Some people are gifted, hardworking, ambitious, and enterprising, or had farsighted parents, and they are more likely to become well off. â€Å"In turn, such attributes are measured accountable for the East Asian success stories, or a demonstration of the legality and correctness of the individualistic free market approach to economic development. In more general terms, the achievement of these countries is interpreted as a substantiation of the domain assumptions of neo-classical economic theory: that competent growth can be promoted by relying on free markets, getting prices to replicate real scarcities, liberalizing trade policy, and authorizing international price signals to be more generously transmitted to the domestic economy. On the whole idea, therefore, is that market-oriented systems with private incentives lean to show a superior performance in terms of growth attainment.In general, critics of the â€Å"dirigiste dogma† such as Hayek, Lal, and Bauer assert that, compared to countries in the more developed division of the world, most governments in the less developed sector lack the type of knowledge and data required for rational intervention, are often less democratic, and often exhibit motives that are at inconsistency with Keynesian-type or structuralist objectives of growth with redeployment and full employment. The reaction is that markets in both sectors of the world are less liberated than is usually supposed, lack the capability for making rational decisions, and particularly in the developing world, not always adequately organized to effectively convey the essential price signals. There is numerous element of truth in both the anti-Keynesian and Keynesian/structuralist perspectives. Where the balance is lastly drawn becomes an issue of ideology and slanted judgment rather than scientific economic analysis. In any event, the path followed by any particular country is typically constrained by its historical and socio-cultural situation.In addition, the obstruction of local forms of industrial development led to the configuration of a modern middle class of â€Å"petit bourgeoisie† comprising army officials, governmen t bureaucrats, civil servants, teachers, and related cadres. In certain regions and countries, they integrated small traders, â€Å"progressive farmers,† â€Å"middle peasants,† and similar groups that come to obtain increasing importance in the absence of meaningful industrialization. They were to become the prime advocates of state capitalism and other forms of â€Å"national developmentalism. † In conclusion, approximately all states in the developing world are domineering in varying degrees. Several are classic cases of the predator or rentier state in which everything is part of a ruler's individual fiefdom and high offices are up for sale to the highest bidders.There are a few cases, yet, where governments have established some measure of institutional consistency in the detection of collective development goals. Needless to say, the situation diverges from one historical or political framework to another. The majority of developing countries have no subst itute but to rely on a strong and focused government to map out a strategic development way. The obstinate theoretical and practical question relics why different types of interventionist states with command over similar resources and instruments of control tend to show extremely conflicting development orientations and end up on dissimilar development paths.The consensual view is that the great majority have remained â€Å"regulatory† or â€Å"obstructionist† and are far back on the road to becoming real â€Å"development states† that portray the vision and capability needed to promote necessary development goals. Achievement of the latter depending not so much on the dimension of the government apparatus but more on its quality and efficiency. This has been established by the development experience of Nordic and East Asian countries, which have been thriving in meshing interventionist schemes with the market mechanism, as well as in cultivation resilient coali tions of modernizing interests in the structuring of national development agendas. Traditionally, such coalitions have resultant their integrity, credibility, and political legality from the nation's collective aspirations.The centralization of decision making has been efficiently combined with flexibility in dealing with technical and market conditions. Goals and policies have been continually interpreted and reinterpreted on the basis of organizational networks between party organizations, public officials, and private entrepreneurs. This is not meant to propose that what has worked in the flourishing corporatist models of the Nordic countries and the Sinitic world, particularly Japan, can or should be replicated in the late-developing world. In the first place, the social and cultural homogeneity in both regions have made the counterfeiting of a political consensus much easier.Second, the tensions that continuously arise between the spoken interests of organized classes, pressure groups, and the state influential responsible for policy formulation and implementation cannot be resolved in a context free or institutionally neutral manner. The state remains a â€Å"strategic actor in the game of mixed conflict and cooperation amongst other groups† (Bardhan 1988: 65). Under the conditions, the nature of developmental outcomes eventually depends on its ability to determine conflicts and make compromises in an open political milieu. The directness of the political process determines the nature and efficacy of the development delivery system and the degree to which consensual relationships can be recognized and nurtured with labor, business, people's organizations, and the rustic sector.